Lamb of God #2

This short and very readable volume is valuable but flawed. The reason I say that: great information on historical “knowing” and application to historical Jesus studies, but poor application to the Jesus story once Le Donne turns his attention to it. First, the part I think is good.

When it comes to historical knowledge, how we know history, Le Donne explains in layman terms why modernism overreached. Modernism was too optimistic in some ways and too skeptical in others. It assumed we could find “the facts, just the facts” and view history objectively, in a one to one correspondence. All knowledge, even memory, is interpretation, says Le Donne, in what I deem to be a proper postmodern correction.

And Le Donne carefully and clearly explains how memory and historical knowledge actually work. If a reader wants a book showing how postmodernism is a great improvement on modernism, this one is perfect for the task. All new knowledge is filtered through our previous knowledge, and is a matter of interpretation. There is no un-interpreted fact. Memory itself, as Le Donne demonstrates, is “refracted” (to use his word) just as the view of deep space is subtly altered by the limits of our optical technology. And we put new data into categories we understand from previous things we have learned. Paradigm changes and new categories come slowly, building on previous knowledge. That is why, over time, our knowledge improves, as more and more data give us new categories of understanding. Knowledge is provisional, destined to be improved as our base of ideas grows.

When we experience something and access the memory of that experience, we categorize it according to pre-conceived ideas.

How does this apply to Jesus? He lived according to ideas and categories from the prophets. He spoke ideas that had precursors in Israelite thought. His followers and critics alike understood him in categories from the Hebrew Bible. He deliberately evoked themes shared by Jewish hearers and put his own twist on them. All of this, so far, is undeniable.

But when Le Donne creatively applies examples, that is where I think his work suffers. Here is a prime example of the dubious results of his application: the ascension never happened but was Luke superimposing Elijah typology on the memory of Jesus’ death. That is, Luke heard the accounts of eyewitnesses and read earlier gospels like Mark, but the pre-conceived categories of the Elijah story colored his perception of what happened to Jesus. His prior categories of knowledge boxed him into certain ways of thinking about Jesus. Elijah ascended and the disciples remembered Jesus according to many Elijah-like sayings and deeds. Thus, the ascension scene of Yeshua at the end of Luke, repeated at the beginning of Acts, is a the result of a chain of memory refraction passing from Mark to Luke, in which Elijah typology is taken too literally.

The mechanism Le Donne suggests for this is as follows: Luke had before him Mark 16:19 (that is already questionable as Mark 16:19 is thought to have a later origin than Luke and that Mark properly ends at 16:8). Mark 16:19 makes a simple literary statement about Yeshua being taken up into heaven. Luke interprets this literally through the Elijah story and assumes a bodily ascension into the sky. Luke then takes what is simple literary allusion to the death and then disappearance of Yeshua from the tomb to have been a resurrection and ascension into the sky.

But as creative as this reconstruction sounds, it is based on omitting certain things and allowing others which have no basis. Did Luke really have Mark 16:19 before him? Or is Mark 16:19 a scribal addition from later than the New Testament? Could it be that Mark 16:19 is actually based on Luke’s account of the ascension? And the greatest gap in Le Donne’s thinking, it seems to me, is that he finds a creative re-explanation of the ascension, but leaves untouched the empty tomb and resurrection appearance stories. Is he implying that the resurrection may have really happened but not the ascension?

I recommend Le Donne’s book for what it is great at: explaining historical knowledge, what it is, how memory is constrained to be an interpretation and not a mythically objective reporting of “what happened,” and a defense of traditional categories of historical Jesus studies as valid as long as the idea of authenticity is properly defined. I shudder when I read Le Donne’s applications, though, not only to the ascension, but also to the “triumphal entry” and “temple cleansing” incidents. Numerous pre-judgments about the state of Jesus’ disciple movement, the Temple authorities, and Jesus’ own psychology color Le Donne’s examples. There is much room to disagree with his application of his solidly helpful theory.

One of the two weirdest (there is one that is even weirder) is Matthew 2:15. Is Matthew able to read and understand the Hebrew Bible? Is he guilty of a strange and arbitrary reading simply to justify his belief in Yeshua of Nazareth? Of course the author of Matthew knows what he is doing. It is the modern reader who must make the adjustment into the world of midrashic use of scripture. Midrash is a kind of teaching using the scriptures in a homiletic manner (a sermon, a talk on a religious or moral subject). Midrash is interested in going beyond the plain meaning — but it is not intended to replace the plain meaning. Midrash is looking for something hinted at. And Midrash always has a justification. It is never arbitrary. It is always based on some technical detail about the words, grammar, or interconnections between the verse in question and other verses on the same theme.

One aspect of the art of midrash is to say something that seems a tad outrageous. But on closer investigation the outrageous statement can be justified and also can be shown relevant. The sages and rabbis of old loved to discuss halakhah (detailed investigations of categories and practices for keeping the commandments of Torah). But the public preferred to hear from them midrashes — sermons and parables with moral, theological, and narrative interest.

So, let’s look at the great midrash of Matthew on Hosea 11:1 and learn as students.

Matthew’s citation of Hosea 11:1 is much closer to the Hebrew than the Greek translation (LXX, Septuagint). The Hebrew text of Hosea 11:1 rendered in as literal a form as possible looks something like this:
When a youth [was] Israel, I loved him; and out of Egypt I called my son.
The LXX has: out of Egypt have I called his children.
Matthew has: out of Egypt I called my son.

Although Matthew wrote in Greek, his midrash on Hosea depended on the Hebrew text (or if not, a Greek text that was based on the proto-Masoretic text).

It is quickly obvious if you look up Hosea 11:1 that the verse is not about Messiah, but about Israel. Vs.2 says, “As they [prophets] called to them they went away from them; to the Baals they would sacrifice and to images they would burn offerings.” (Note: Most modern translations deviate from the Masoretic text, but I am not persuaded of their reasons regarding this verse and so offer my own translation based on the Delitzsch commentary).

What facts of the situation did Matthew have in front of him that led to this connection between Yeshua the son and Israel the son?

First, Matthew had the gospel accounts from eyewitnesses that the heavenly voice twice called Yeshua “son,” once at the baptism and once at the transfiguration. Second, he had the unusual manner of Yeshua’s speaking, which was frequent, about his Father. The sonship of Yeshua was a major theme of Yeshua’s teaching and God was “Abba” to him. Third, he knew the deep theme of Israel’s sonship in the Hebrew Bible. In Deuteronomy 32 (a key chapter), Israel is the son who disappointed God who gave him birth. In the Exodus tradition, God said to Pharaoh, “Let my son go” (Exod 4:23). God promised to be a father the Davidic king (Messiah) who would be a son to him. In the Psalms about the Davidic king (Messiah) the king is called son and it is even said, “you are my son; today I have begotten you” (Psa 2:7).

Matthew is saying that Yeshua is the son like Israel is the son and like the Davidic-messianic king is the son. He is defining the meaning of Yeshua’s sonship. The specific event that brought this comparison to mind is Yeshua’s family coming back into Galilee out of Egypt, where they had been hiding from Herod.

Comparisons between contemporary events and ancient biblical events were a poetic Hebrew way of thinking. A similar famous text is also used in this section about Rachel weeping for her children. The event that inspired Jeremiah the prophet to speak of Rachel weeping was when exiles to Babylon, terribly treated Judeans being taken away from everything they held dear, passing nearby the place where Genesis had indicated Rachel was buried. It was not unusual for Jeremiah to relate geography — the place Rachel was buried — to events in his time — exiles being tragically marched away.

The problem a modern reader has is simple: we look for the plain meaning, the literal. We tend to be bothered by poetic, symbolic, homiletical connections. If Matthew doesn’t have a prophecy-fulfillment connection to Hosea 11:1, how dare he cite the verse!

But Matthew has done something much deeper. He has related Yeshua (not only here, but in dozens of places) firmly to the sonship of Israel and the sonship of the Davidic-messianic kings.

In Matthew’s day, the movement of Yeshua-followers was expanding. Certain elements already wanted to remove Yeshua in some ways from his Jewish context. Matthew famously represents the interest of keeping the image of Yeshua within a Jewish framework. Yeshua is Ideal Israel and Yeshua is the New Moses. The midrash on Hosea 11:1 is a masterful example of the art of teaching Yeshua’s life from within Jewish thought.

In Michael Bird’s Are You the One Who Is to Come?: The Historical Jesus and the Messianic Question, there is a helpful chart of some major messianic scriptures and references to the thought of the time about these texts. What kinds of things were people saying about Isaiah 11 in Second Temple Judaism? That will be our theme in this first installment.

To help those who might not have the patience to read through the examples below, what you will see is:

• The “Shoot from the Stump of Jesse” is definitely interpreted as a messiah-figure (king, warrior).
• There is an expectation of war against oppressing nations (Rome = Kittim, nations = gentiles).
• There are unclear hints in the Dead Sea fragments of the Shoot being one of several messianic figures working together (one of them is a priest of renown).
• The Shoot will lead the nation in a time of unparalleled righteousness and is even said in one place to be without sin.
• The excerpt from Testament of Levi sounds like Yeshua’s baptism (but these texts were almost certainly edited after the time of Yeshua with Christian involvement – so no big revelation here).
• One excerpt in the Dead Sea Scrolls sounds as if, possibly, the Shoot will be killed. But words are missing and I have not read commentary on this text, so I may be completely mistaken.

THE SCRIPTURE: Isaiah 11:1-6, RSV
There shall come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse,
and a branch shall grow out of his roots.
And the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him,
the spirit of wisdom and understanding,
the spirit of counsel and might,
the spirit of knowledge and the fear of the Lord.
And his delight shall be in the fear of the Lord.
He shall not judge by what his eyes see,
or decide by what his ears hear;
but with righteousness he shall judge the poor,
and decide with equity for the meek of the earth;
and he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth,
and with the breath of his lips he shall slay the wicked.
Righteousness shall be the girdle of his waist,
and faithfulness the girdle of his loins.
The wolf shall dwell with the lamb,
and the leopard shall lie down with the kid,
and the calf and the lion and the fatling together,
and a little child shall lead them.

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA (Various Jewish Writings, from Charlesworth’s two-volume set).
1 Enoch 62:2

The Lord of the Spirits has sat down on the throne of his glory, and the spirit of righteousness has been poured out upon him. The word of his mouth will do the sinners in: and all the oppressors shall be eliminated from before his face.

Excerpts from Psalms of Solomon 17:22-37

Undergird him with strength to destroy the unrighteous rulers . . . to shatter all their substance with an iron rod; to destroy the unlawful nations with the word of his mouth . . . He will gather a holy people whom he will lead in righteousness . . . He will distribute them on their land according to their tribes . . . He will judge peoples and nations in the wisdom of his righteousness . . . And he will be a righteous king over them, taught by God. There will be no unrighteous among them in his days, for all shall be holy, and their king shall be the Lord Messiah . . . and he himself will be free from sin . . . and he will not weaken in his days (relying) upon his God, for God made him powerful in the holy spirit, and wise in counsel of understanding, with strength and righteousness.

Excerpts from Testament of Judah, chapter 24.

And after this there will arise for you a star from Jacob in peace . . . This is the Shoot of God Most High; this is the fountain for the life of all humanity . . . and from your root will arise the Shoot, and through it will arise the rod of righteousness for the nations, to judge and to save all that call on the Lord.

Excerpts from Testament of Levi, chapter 18.

And then the Lord will raise up a new priest to whom all the words of the Lord will be revealed . . . The heavens will greatly rejoice in his days and the earth shall be glad; the clouds will be filled with joy and the knowledge of the Lord will be poured out on the earth like the water of the seas . . . The heavens will be opened and from the Temple of Glory sanctification will come upon him, with a fatherly voice, as from Abraham to Isaac. And the glory of the Most High will burst forth upon him. And the spirit of understanding and sanctification shall rest upon him.

TARGUM (Aramaic Translation).
Excerpts from 11:1-6.

And a King shall come forth from the sons of Jesse, and from his children’s children the Messiah shall be anointed . . . And the righteous shall be round about him, and those that work in faith shall draw nigh unto him. In the days of the Messiah of Israel peace shall be multiplied on the earth.

DEAD SEA SCROLLS (simplified from the Florentino Garcia Martizez translation).
Excerpts from 4Q285 5:1-6, “4Q War Scroll.”

A shoot will emerge from the stump of Jesse [missing words] the bud of David will go into battle with [missing words] and the Prince of the Congregation will kill him, the bud of David [missing words] and with wounds. And a priest will command [missing words] the destruction of the Kittim.

Excerpts from 1QSb 5:22, 25, 26, “Rule of the Blessing.”

. . . to reproach the humble of the earth with uprightness,
to walk in perfection before him in all his paths . . .
May you strike the peoples with the power of your mouth . . .
May you kill the wicked.

Excerpts from 4Q161 3:18-25, “Isaiah Pesher.”

The interpretation of the word concerns the shoot of David which will sprout in the final days, since with the breath of his lips he will execute his enemies and God will support him with the spirit of courage . . .
He will not judge by appearances or give verdicts on hearsay. Its interpretation: [missing words] according to what they teach him, he will judge, and upon his mouth [missing words] with him will go out one of the priests of renown, holding clothes in his hand.

NEW TESTAMENT
Matthew 2:23
Acts 13:23
Hebrews 7:14
Revelation 5:5
Revelation 22:16

All Hebrew Bible verses (in bold) are given in the JPS translation (verse numbers in parentheses are Christian numbering). The Mark verses are from my favorite English version, the RSV (until the Delitzsch Hebrew-English version is released).

Psalm 69:22(21) They give me gall for food, vinegar to quench my thirst.
Mark 15:21-23 And they compelled a passer-by, Simon of Cyrene, who was coming in from the country, the father of Alexander and Rufus, to carry his cross. And they brought him to the place called Golgotha (which means the place of a skull). And they offered him wine mingled with myrrh; but he did not take it.

Psalms 22:19(18) They divide my clothes among themselves, casting lots for my garments.
Mark 15:24-26 And they crucified him, and divided his garments among them, casting lots for them, to decide what each should take. And it was the third hour, when they crucified him. And the inscription of the charge against him read, “The King of the Jews.”

Isaiah 53:12 . . . And was numbered among the sinners, Whereas he bore the guilt of the many . . .
Mark 15:27 And with him they crucified two robbers, one on his right and one on his left.

Psalms 22:9(8) Let him commit himself to the LORD; let Him rescue him, let Him save him . . .
Psalms 109:25 I am the object of their scorn; when they see me, they shake their head.
Mark 15:29-32 And those who passed by derided him, wagging their heads, and saying, “Aha! You who would destroy the temple and build it in three days, save yourself, and come down from the cross!” So also the chief priests mocked him to one another with the scribes, saying, “He saved others; he cannot save himself. Let the Christ, the King of Israel, come down now from the cross, that we may see and believe.” Those who were crucified with him also reviled him.

Psalms 22:2(1) My God, my God, why have You abandoned me?
Mark 15:33-39 And when the sixth hour had come, there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour. And at the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, “Elo-i, Elo-i, lama sabach-thani?” which means, “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” And some of the bystanders hearing it said, “Behold, he is calling Elijah.” And one ran and, filling a sponge full of vinegar, put it on a reed and gave it to him to drink, saying, “Wait, let us see whether Elijah will come to take him down.” And Jesus uttered a loud cry, and breathed his last. And the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. And when the centurion, who stood facing him, saw that he thus breathed his last, he said, “Truly this man was the Son of God!”

In spite of some evidence of popular use of Hebrew in certain circles, it is nearly unanimous amongst scholars that Aramaic was the common language of Israelites in Yeshua’s time (and Hebrew a religious language). The Targums are paraphrases of the Bible (loose translations with comments inserted, rather like study Bibles). Our manuscripts of the Targums are mostly from the Middle Ages. But were there Targums in use in Yeshua’s time?

In Noncanonical Writings and New Testament Interpretation, Craig Evans considers the evidence for Targums being in use in Yeshua’s time.

Fragments of Targums were found in the Cairo Geniza (a storehouse for old sacred scrolls which could not be thrown away which was discovered and started being studied in the late 19th century). Some of these documents were older copies of texts than any we had to date. The find of Targums here began to suggest they might be older than originally thought.

In the Dead Sea Scrolls, likewise, fragments of Targums were found. This means undeniably that Targums existed before Yeshua’s time. Yet how common were they? Was there one Targum or many Targums? Evans says the preponderance of evidence is that Targums existed, multiple ones, in Yeshua’s time.

The Targum texts as we have them today are products of a later time than the New Testament, but parts of some of them date to before his time. Targum Onkelos (or Onqelos) is the best known, appearing in rabbinic Bibles next to the Hebrew Masoretic text. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (not so named because of any deception, but because of early confusion about its origin) is also well-known along with Neofiti, the Fragment Targum, and various Targums on the prophets and all books of the Hebrew Bible but Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah are known.

The Targums contain many messianic interpretations of Bible passages. There are also possible parallels to the sayings of Yeshua in the gospels which may help us understand why the gospel writers translated citations from the Hebrew Bible the way they did. Also, certain phrases in Yeshua’s words may have their origin in the Targums. It is likely that Yeshua heard the scriptures read weekly in the Aramaic and that popular translations were memorized and recounted by him in his teaching. Evans gives a list of the most promising parallels.

ISAIAH 40:3 A voice cries: “In the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD, make straight in the desert a highway for our God.
Mark 2:3 (with Malachi 3:1)
Matthew 3:3
Luke 3:4 (Isa 40:3-5)
John 1:23

ZECHARIAH 9:9 Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! Lo, your king comes to you; triumphant and victorious is he, humble and riding on an ass, on a colt the foal of an ass.
Matthew 21:5
John 12:15

ISAIAH 6:9-10 Go, and say to this people: ‘Hear and hear, but do not understand; see and see, but do not perceive.’ Make the heart of this people fat, and their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes, and hear with their ears, and understand with their hearts, and turn and be healed.
Matthew 13:14-15
John 12:40 (with Isa 53:1)

PSALM 22:19 (18) they divide my garments among them, and for my raiment they cast lots.
John 19:24
Not recorded in the three synoptic gospels, but all three record the event.

ISAIAH 29:13 And the Lord said: “Because this people draw near with their mouth and honor me with their lips, while their hearts are far from me, and their fear of me is a commandment of men learned by rote…
Mark 7:6-7
Matthew 15:8-9

ISAIAH 56:7 (with JEREMIAH 7:11) for my house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples…Has this house, which is called by my name, become a den of robbers in your eyes?
Mark 11:17
Matthew 21:13
Luke 19:46

PSALM 118:22-23 The stone which the builders rejected has become the head of the corner. This is the Lord’s doing; it is marvelous in our eyes.
Mark 12:10-11
Matthew 21:42
Luke 20:17

PSALM 110:1 The Lord says to my lord: “Sit at my right hand, till I make your enemies your footstool.”
Mark 12:36
Matthew 22:44
Luke 20:42-43